1. Introduction
Short video development has been significantly facilitated by the development of 5G communication technology, efficient network transmission rates, and the increasing popularity of certain forms of hardware. According to Cisco, short videos may have accounted for 82% of all internet traffic in 2022 (Cisco, 2018). The short video has attracted a large number of users and is becoming increasingly popular. Notably, the Chinese market has grown explosively in recent years. The number of short video users in China reached 975 million in December 2021, and the average daily usage exceeds 2 h (CNNIC, 2021). TikTok, which is owned by the Chinese firm Byte Dance, has more than 600 million users, making it one of the most influential and widely used social media platforms in the world (Iqbal, 2021). Its popularity was the main reason for our decision to conduct this study within a Chinese context.
However, the popularity of short videos has also given rise to numerous concerns related to browsing behaviors, regarding time consumption, ego depletion, and even pathological internet use (Elhai et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2021). Most scholars have focused on internet access and the effect of varying levels of media usage (Kelly et al., 2018; Paez et al., 2020; Hwang and Nam, 2021). However, they have ignored the differences among various applications (Ling and Lai, 2016), especially the technological affordances that affect positive feelings and behaviors (Huang et al., 2022). It has been shown that structural features of media messages (e.g., camera changes, animations, voice changes, sound effects) and personally salient stimuli (e.g., information relevant to an ongoing goal) elicit orienting responses in media users (Lang, 1990; Lee and Lang, 2015). Therefore, we examined the influence of technological affordances on the use of short videos. Short videos have the following obvious characteristics: They run for less than 10 min and mainly consist of segments that last between 60 s and 3 min (von der Osten, 2021; Mileva, 2022). These videos tend to present compact narratives, enabling users to grasp important ideas. In addition, short videos are displayed in vertical formats that differ from the widescreen formats of movies, television, and traditional video platforms. The vertical format reflects the habits of users and the visual design of smartphones (Ryan, 2018). Their low technical requirements allow most users to upload original content and browse videos that they find interesting. In this way, they can acquire practical skills and follow live shows (Jason, 2019).
The media often refer to addictiveness when they cover short-video consumption (CYOL, 2021). However, this proposition focuses entirely on the length of use. Conversely, the concept of immersion denotes the involvement of an individual in a task environment rather than in the natural world. The individual becomes unaware of the passage of time (Jennett et al., 2008). Immersive experiences have been defined as highly enjoyable psychological states (Sarkar and Khare, 2018). Researchers have examined such experiences on various media platforms (Ahn et al., 2016; van Krieken, 2018), including in the context of short videos (Wang, 2020). In short video streaming, an artificial intelligence (AI) algorithm recommends fresh content based on personal browsing habits and interests. Short video streaming is thus different from other social networking applications (Weimann and Masri, 2020; Xu and Tayyab, 2021). Short video platforms provide endless access to content through innovations. Although immersive experiences have been explored in certain studies, the focus has mainly been on the technical environment of a given medium, and few attempts have been made to investigate the influence of the content features of short videos (Cummings and Bailenson, 2016).
Why does time fly? Short video browsing behavior reflects preferences for the information flows that intelligent digital algorithms create. Little is known regarding the characteristics of short video content and the technical features that are related to media usage. Our study has explored the social effect of technological affordances through quantitative research methods. It thus differs from previous qualitative analyses of the concept and is intended to improve the contemporary understanding of the impact of social media on the behavior of users of short videos in the era of digital media.
2. Literature review
2.1. Immersive experiences and usage behavior
The concept of immersion originated in a study of virtual reality technology. Foley (1987) was the first to mention the problem of immersion in virtual reality, suggesting that immersion would represent the future of the technology. An immersive environment calls for the creation of a panoramic simulation that improves user experience and heightens the effect of media (Foley, 1987). The notion of an immersive experience is well-known in virtual gaming. For example, Brown and Cairns (2004) found that immersed gamers invest time, effort, and attention in games and became less aware of themselves and their surroundings; they even feel isolated from reality. In a broader sense, immersion indicates a lack of awareness of time and the natural world. The concept denotes involvement and a sense of existing within a task environment (Jennett et al., 2008). Immersion has been shown to be related to factors associated with games, for instance, the music used in a game and the screen size of devices on which a game is played (Cairns et al., 2014). Immersion is possible on various platforms, including print (Green et al., 2004), television (Wijnants et al., 2017), virtual reality (Ahn et al., 2016), and multimedia (van Krieken, 2018).
The effect of an immersive experience on behavior has been confirmed in several studies. An immersive experience enhances preferences for specific spaces, services, and/or experiences, such as theme parks (Waysdorf and Reijnders, 2016), museums (Damala et al., 2013), and movies (Fornerino et al., 2008). Use intention and frequency of media usage have been shown to result from immersion in a mobile e-service (Ltifi, 2018) and on the Facebook platform (Rodríguez-Ardura and Meseguer-Artola, 2019). One study has suggested that the use of a bullet screen, which is called “DanMu” in China, affects immersion on video websites and enhances intentions to revisit and to provide positive word of mouth (Fang et al., 2018). As mobile short-form videos were being developed on social media applications, some scholars began to study immersion in that context (Wang, 2020).
The present study has explored two types of user behavior, namely the tendency to continue using short videos (Lin and Lu, 2011) and the tendency to influence other users (Fang et al., 2018), that is, to provide positive word of mouth. Previous studies have also referred to these behavioral intentions to assess loyalty (Hwang and Kandampully, 2012), which is essential for product or service innovation. Furthermore, Shao and Lee (2020) have explained that TikTok relies on satisfaction and intention to induce continuous usage. This study focused on user behaviors that immersion triggers when short content is presented continuously, especially in the context of videos on mobile applications. Consequently, the first hypothesis was formulated as follows:
H1: Immersive experiences in short videos are positively related to (a) intention for continued use and (b) positive word of mouth.
2.2. Immersive experience hypothesis
Slater and Wilbur (1997) have suggested that immersion is a characteristic of technology. They have emphasized that a system that removes participants from the real world is more likely to lead to immersion. Such systems typically offer inclusive, extensive, all-encompassing, and vivid illusory environments as well as accurate body mapping and self-contained narratives. Affordance theory posits that a characteristic of an object or the environment affords organisms opportunities to perform actions (Gibson, 1986). Moreover, affordance is a perceived property of a thing that determines how the thing could be used by a human (Norman, 1990). The concept of technological affordance captures the manner in which objects (including digital technologies) provide goal-oriented actors with opportunities for action (Markus and Silver, 2008). The attributes and abilities of users, the materiality of technologies, and the contexts of technology use can be dynamic, and the concept provides a framework for probing the relationships among them (Evans et al., 2017). Increasing digitalization has highlighted the value of discussions regarding technological affordances (Lu et al., 2014; Shin, 2017), which can be defined as the features of a digital technology that may trigger certain behaviors that users recognize. The term encompasses content, form, and modes of human-computer interaction that are common in digital media and have been shown to enable immersion, enjoyment, and temporal dissociation experiences (Huang et al., 2022).
Agrawal et al. (2020) identified three causes of immersion: a subjective sense of being absorbed or of experiencing multisensory stimulation, absorption in a narrative or a depiction of a narrative, and absorption in strategic or tactical challenges. Primary studies that have drawn on meta-analyses have indicated immersion-related features that are mostly technical in nature, such as tracking level, the field of view, stereoscopic vision, and sound quality (Cummings and Bailenson, 2016). Emotional content has been identified as one of the few content features that are relevant (Cummings and Bailenson, 2016), which is why we explore it in this study. The hypotheses that we have advanced consider the affordances that are related to media content and the technological properties of short videos.
2.2.1. Ease of navigation
Navigability is considered important for understanding user experience in the context of certain interfaces. Navigability is related to the physical affordance of an information technology artifact that users can sense and act upon (Zhao et al., 2013). For example, the speed and convenience with which users can find content and information is an integral aspect of web design (Sundar and Limperos, 2013; Bedi et al., 2017), in that rapid reactions lead to tactical immersion (Agrawal et al., 2020). Research has found that perceived ease of navigation induces emotional and behavioral responses. A website that is seen as easy to navigate is also perceived as being more pleasant to use (George and Kumar, 2013). Such a website induces a stronger sense of flow (Hsu et al., 2013), and its design encourages impulse purchases (Lin and Lo, 2016). Regarding dynamic images, Guo et al. (2021) found that navigation could affect immersion and enjoyment among digital museum visitors. Meng and Leung (2021) further found that navigability causes short videos to become more satisfying to users. Navigability is a vital part of the online experience of users (including users of short video platforms), and it is connected to search functionalities. It thus triggers continuance intentions (Gong et al., 2018) and promotes electronic word of mouth (Dutta and Bhat, 2017). In line with the literature presented above, we formulated a second hypothesis:
H2: The perceived ease of navigating a short video is positively related to immersive experience.
2.2.2. Novelty effect
Absolute and relative novelty have been examined in past research. The former term refers to objects that have never been seen before. The latter describes a familiar object in a new place or an encounter with a novel arrangement of familiar objects (Mendelson, 2001). The novelty effect is more significant for incidental encoding than for intentional encoding (Kormi-Nouri et al., 2005). From the perspective of cognitive psychology, novel items are recognized more easily than familiar ones (Tulving and Kroll, 1995). The synthetic offerings of digital media are considered to be fluid and indeterminate processes of meaning creation, which are different from the enabling and constraining outcomes of inherently positive affordances (Siegert et al., 2020). In the current research, the characteristics of short video applications, such as vertical presentation and unique interfaces, can be seen as being novel and preventing attention from being diverted away from the application (Agrawal et al., 2020). Moreover, because the content is presented at random, users generally cannot anticipate subsequent videos, which may arouse their curiosity. Thon (2008) has described those who focus their attention on unfolding stories as experiencing temporal immersion.
Gaming research has focused on media platforms. One common finding has been that the presentation of content that is perceived as novel and involves unexpected, unusual, and rare events leads to immersion (Liu and Shiue, 2014). Novel digital platforms also lead to more intense emotional responses, as measured by skin conductance (Turner-McGrievy et al., 2013), as well as a greater willingness to access content (Brown, 2002). Consequently, we formulated a third hypothesis:
H3: The perceived novelty of a short video is positively related to immersion.
2.2.3. Narrative structure
Narrative affordances are related to the opportunity for a future story to be presented to an audience in the form of media content (Cardona-Rivera and Young, 2013). Structural affect theory postulates that three elements (suspense, surprise, and curiosity) result in emotional responses and account for the degree to which one enjoys narration (Brewer and Lichtenstein, 1982). A satisfactory narrative structure is considered to give full play to gamers’ subjectivity, to control their emotions, and to strengthen their senses of substitution, immersion, and accomplishment (Li and Kim, 2020). Empirical research has confirmed the influence of narrative affordances on subjects’ affective and cognitive processing. The related literature mainly has examined the structural effects of stories in print media. For example, it has been found that a suspenseful narrative structure arouses more emotion and results in more immersion (de Graaf and Hustinx, 2011) and in a feeling of being “taken away” from the story world (Gerrig, 1993). Likewise, a story that contains a surprise is appreciated more and remembered more accurately. Curiosity also affects readers’ enjoyment (Hoeken and Vliet, 2000). Finally, it has been found that repeated exposure to suspenseful films can result in affective habituation or desensitization to repeated stimuli (Chun et al., 2020).
It is worth noting that new media and computer-mediated communication have resulted in a re-examination of narrative theory. Textual features are related to the length, style, and genre of content (Bazzanella, 2010). Researchers have indicated that regarding perceived ease of navigation, the effectiveness of a 360-degree video advertisement presenting a narrative differs from that of a standard narrative video advertisement in terms of transportation, promotional effectiveness, and emotional responses (Feng, 2018). A short video might attract more attention if its structure is suspenseful, surprising, or probing, which can enhance its effect during continuous playback. In light of the above observations, we formulated a fourth hypothesis as follows:
H4: The narrative structure of a short video is positively related to immersion.
2.2.4. Content value of short videos
As mentioned previously, the primary antecedents of immersion are related to its technical aspects. Little attention has been paid to features such as emotional content (Cummings and Bailenson, 2016). Perceived cognitive affordance and perceived affective affordance are considered to be two key components of the interactive design of social media. The former is related to users’ perceptions of social media as supporting conceptual, analytical, and problem-solving processes, while the latter refers to the attributes of artifacts that can trigger emotional reactions (Zhao et al., 2013).
Previous research has suggested that perceived advertising value influences the behavior of audiences. Ducoffe (1995) examined three factors, namely informativeness, entertainment, and irritation, to evaluate advertising value, which in turn can influence consumer responses (Ducoffe, 1995). As web advertising evolved, Ducoffe developed measurement scales and confirmed the applicability of the three factors. The term “informativeness” refers to the capacity of an advertisement to provide information about alternative products. “Entertainment” refers to its potential to fascinate consumers. “Irritation” is related to annoyance and offense that consumers may experience (Ducoffe, 1996). The roles of these factors have also been examined in the context of advertising materials on mobile social network services (Ha et al., 2014), on YouTube (Dehghani et al., 2016), and on similar platforms. Most of these studies have reported significant results. Moreover, those results have indicated that there is a positive relationship between informativeness, entertainment, and the efficacy of advertisements. Irritation is negatively related to efficacy (Ducoffe, 1995, 1996). These factors may attract or divert users’ attention, and they are likely to affect immersion (Thon, 2008; Agrawal et al., 2020).
We applied the analytical logic and the findings from the literature outlined above regarding advertising value to short videos. Our analysis accounted for informativeness, entertainment, and irritation. We examined the perceived content value of short videos. A survey of short video users revealed that interesting videos, that is, videos that induce positive feelings and those that describe skills, attract considerable attention (Zhen, 2018). In the literature, direct and indirect relationships between advertising value and purchasing intention have emerged as meaningful. Therefore, our study considered whether immersion could be affected by perceived content value. In line with previous work, we developed the following research question (RQ): Do (a) information value, (b) entertainment value, and (c) irritation value exert influences on the immersive experiences of users?
We used a stimulus–organism–response framework, which originated from environmental psychology. External environmental stimuli affect the cognitive or emotional states of individuals (organisms) and result in behavioral responses (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). This model has been applied extensively to computer-mediated communication in order to understand user behavior and online media consumption (Luqman et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2018). Technically related factors that affect both social media and online commerce platforms (perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, visibility, interactivity) have been considered as stimulus cues in previous studies (Hwang and Cho, 2018; Tuncer, 2021). Our study involved four stimuli, namely (1) perceived ease of navigation (physical affordance), (2) the novelty effect (situation affordance), (3) narrative structure (narrative affordance), and (4) the content value of short videos (cognitive and affective affordance). We attempted to understand the relationships between immersive experiences and certain technological affordances of short videos as well as to explore the manner in which an immersive experience can shape intentions for return and recommendation.
3. Method
3.1. Sample
We collected data from WenJuanXing (http://www.wjx.cn), a Chinese commercial online survey service provider that is similar to MTurk, between January 1 and March 31, 2019. The WenJuanXing platform allowed us to distribute the questionnaire through WeChat, the most popular mobile instant messaging service in China, which was particularly appropriate for recruiting younger individuals (Mei and Brown, 2018). The data collection protocol was approved by the institutional review board of the university with which the authors are affiliated. An introduction explaining the purpose of the research was placed at the beginning of the questionnaire. All participants provided written informed consent and were informed of their rights of withdrawal, confidentiality, and anonymity prior to taking the survey. Qualified participants were identified by means of a filtering question; those who had never used short video applications were disqualified.
A total of 526 individuals completed the questionnaire, and 496 of them submitted valid responses. We conducted a seriousness check by excluding participants with exceedingly short completion times (Aust et al., 2013). A total of 30 invalid questionnaires were discarded because of the low time spent (answering the questions in less than 90 s) (Gu et al., 2022). Among the participants, 62.3% were female and 37.7% were male, 40.1% were aged between 19 and 25 years, and 32.5% were aged between 26 and 35 years. The average age of the participants was 30.31 years (SD = 12.03). Regarding education levels, 48.6% of participants held or were completing a bachelor’s degree, and 36.3% were pursuing a master’s degree or another postgraduate qualification.
In terms of exposure to short video applications, 63.9% of the respondents reported watching short videos on applications at least several times a week, and 33.3% used such services several times per day or more frequently. Most of the participants were acting as passive recipients of content (92.7%), which was in accordance with the focus of this study. Some participants were heavily involved in short video applications; for example, some would share their own videos (9.7%) or interact with others (23.0%) on the platforms.
3.2. Process and measurements
This study involved 31 items that were developed in line with previous studies and revised to assess the extent to which participants agree with items after watching short videos. For example, the sentence “The features of Foodies.com seem unique to me” (Kim and Gambino, 2016) was revised to “The features of short video apps seem unique to me”; the sentences that began with “Advertisements are…” (Ducoffe, 1995) were revised to “Short videos are…” All scale items were closed-ended, and participants were asked to assess their preferences on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = “strongly disagree,” 7 = “strongly agree”). The items were translated from English to Chinese with the aid of two bilingual Ph.D. students. Back-translations were used. After comparing the different versions, we modified the Chinese translation to ensure that its constructs were accurate. Two professors who were native speakers of English and Chinese confirmed the meanings of the items. Next, 30 graduate students pretested the questionnaire. Table 1 displays the complete set of measurement items. In addition to the Likert scales, the survey also accounted for demographic variables (e.g., age, gender, and individual income per month) and habits (e.g., frequency of use, preferred type of content, and preferred mode of viewing).
Table 1. Measurement development.
The measurement model was evaluated by reference to a maximum likelihood estimate (MLE), which was suitable for the task at hand (Myung, 2003). All hypothesized relationships and exploratory questions were tested by using Mplus (version 7.0; Muthén and Muthén, 1998/2013). To include relevant control variables, we followed previous studies that have shown that age influences immersion and intentions to return and to recommend (Cuny et al., 2015).
4. Results
4.1. Measurement model
We performed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). In this way, we pre-determined the structural model and tested the hypothesis test. Specifically, we chose five fit indices to estimate the model fit, namely model chi-squared, the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standard root mean square residuals (SRMR). The CFA results showed appropriate fit (as demonstrated in Table 2), and every fit index reached the recommended values (Bentler, 1992; Hu and Bentler, 1999).
Table 2. Goodness-of-fit indices of the measurement model.
To test the fit of the measurement model, we checked the reliability of each construct by using Cronbach’s alpha test and composite reliability (CR) values. Each value ranged between 0.78 and 0.93, exceeding the 0.7 thresholds suggested by Hair (2010). Therefore, the measurement scales were reliable. We investigated convergent validity by reference to average variance extracted (AVE) and factor loading. The value of the former was at the recommended level and higher than 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). In addition, the factor loadings of most items approached 0.7, and all values were larger than 0.5 (Hair, 2010). Therefore, convergent validity was confirmed (see Table 3).
Table 3. Convergent validity and reliability statistics.
Furthermore, we investigated discriminant validity in order to check for differences between the latent constructs. All items should load highest on their respective constructs. Thus, the square roots of the average variances shared by the items of a construct should be more significant than the coefficients of correlation among the different constructs within the model. We obtained a satisfactory result (Fornell and Larcker, 1981) that demonstrated appropriate discriminant validity (see Table 4).
Table 4. Correlations among the latent constructs.
We tested for common method variance (CMV) by following Harman’s one-factor method. All measurement items were used for factor analysis, and seven factors were extracted under principal component analysis when eigenvalues were not rotated (Livingstone et al., 1997). The total variance explained was 71.71. The variance of the first factor was 36.07, lower than 40% (Hair, 2010). Therefore, CMV was not problematic, and we continued to test the structural equation model.
4.2. The structural model testing
The results from the testing of the hypotheses and the answers to research questions are presented in Table 5 and Figure 1. The model explained 36% of the variance in reuse intention, 50% of the variance in positive word of mouth, and 48% of the variance in the immersive experience. Therefore, the model of the hypotheses was acceptable.
Table 5. Hypothesis testing results.
Figure 1. Structural model.
As expected, perceived immersive experience had a positive impact on positive word of mouth (β = 0.45, SE = 0.05, t = 10.03, p < 0.001) and on continuance intentions (β = 0.32, SE = 0.05, t = 7.20, p < 0.001) for short video applications, suggesting that H1a and H1b were supported by the data. Turning to the six components of the independent variables, immersion was positively related to perceived novelty (β = 0.41, SE = 0.08, t = 5.05, p < 0.001), entertainment value (β = 0.28, SE = 0.08, t = 3.52, p < 0.001), and irritation value (β = 0.19, SE = 0.05, t = 4.04, p < 0.001). However, the path coefficients of the other constructs, perceived ease of navigation (β = 0.02, not significant), narrative structure (β = 0.09, not significant), and information value (β = −0.04, not significant), did not affect immersion significantly. Therefore, H3 was supported, but H2 and H4 were not. The results indicate that RQb and RQc should be answered in the affirmative, while the answer to RQa should be negative.
We conducted a mediation analysis to determine whether the relationships between the independent variables and usage behavior had been mediated by immersion. The specific indirect associations were obtained through a bootstrap procedure that we ran 1,000 times, as suggested by Preacher and Hayes (2008). If the 95% confidence interval around the estimations of the indirect relationships did not include zero, the results confirmed a mediation relationship. The results (see Table 6) indicated that the mediation associations between perceived novelty, entertainment value, irritation value, and the two kinds of usage behavior through immersive experience were statistically significant.
Table 6. Mediation analysis results of immersive experience.
5. Discussion
5.1. Theoretical significance
Research regarding immersive experiences on the internet and in human-computer interactions has lacked theoretical treatments of short video applications (Shrikant et al., 2020). This study focused on the design rather than the adverse effects of video consumption, such as media addiction and social isolation, in order to explain the practice of viewing videos for an extended time (Wegmann and Brand, 2016). We considered the large number of consumers who use mobile devices to access videos. This study has enriched immersion theory and extended the stimulus–organization–response model (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974) to the domain of technological affordances by developing a theoretical model for the formation and the influential mechanisms of the construct of immersive experience in the context of short videos. This model highlights the value of video content. Our results are novel in that we found that perceived novelty and content value (entertainment and irritation) affected immersion positively. Thus, the perceived situation affordance and the affective affordance of short videos, which subsequently influenced individuals’ reuse and recommendation intentions, were highlighted. These findings indicate that not all social media affordances are significant—it is necessary to analyze the impact of different affordances specifically and to modify the use of the concept of affordance that has emerged from the literature.
The main contributions of this study are as follows. First, earlier research has shown that short video applications have adapted algorithm technology to offer users personalized streams that reflect the characteristics of the user, the content, and the environment (Zhu and Cui, 2018). Our model accounted for clickthrough rates, reading times, likes, comments, and forwarding. In other words, short video applications quickly assess the viewing needs of users through AI, which explains why short videos may be viewed for longer than expected and why addictive behavior can occur (Shao, 2018). We found that perceived novelty and entertainment value were positively related to immersion. Thus, if the content of the recommended stream met the user’s standards of perceived novelty and entertainment value and if it enabled viewers to satisfy their innate needs and to confirm their medium-specific gratification expectations (Sundar and Limperos, 2013), it became easier to improve their immersive experiences.
However, a personalized recommendation mechanism can also induce irritation. The algorithm may push homogeneous and vulgar content at users, resulting in insufficient content diversity. In addition, researchers have postulated that short video platforms do not bind users strongly because their content orientation is incorrect. These platforms have also been reported to have numerous adverse effects on teenagers (Meng and Leung, 2021). Irritation value has been found to reduce immersion (Ducoffe, 1995, 1996). To our surprise, our results showed that the opposite was true. This inconsistency may be due to users’ dismissing content that they did not accept and expecting the next video to be different. However, the algorithm recorded such actions as instances of browsing and continued recommending similar content to the user.
Second, the platforms that we studied mostly offer user-generated content. Users are content producers, participants, and communicators; TikTok is a suitable example. Users can record 15 s of an original short music video and share their creative or humorous ideas. They can use video templates and props from the video library, and they only need to imitate and replicate exciting and straightforward actions to create interesting content. This functionality activates creativity and pushes users to explore the application further and to interact with it (Xu and Tayyab, 2021). The innovative and memorable content arouses a sense of novelty. Media users also expect to follow trends and to receive gratifying feedback (Vaterlaus and Winter, 2021). Short video caters to the entertainment needs of contemporary users, anytime and anywhere, bringing vivid sensations to users and creating positive and immersive experiences. Content of this kind, such as Facebook games with unusual components, has been associated with enhanced flow experiences (Liu and Shiue, 2014). In addition, our results suggest that there is not a significant relationship between informativeness and immersion. This conclusion is partially consistent with the notion that entertainment is a stronger motivator of engagement in online consumption than informativeness (Luo, 2002).
Third, immersive experiences affect usage behavior significantly. They encourage users to continue visiting a platform and to comment favorably on it, facilitating the rapid expansion of the short video user market. The success of short videos is not based solely on their format but also on the emotional involvement of users. This positive attitude is likely to translate into a positive evaluation of the platform. Users are also more willing to increase the frequency and duration of use as well as to intensify their future use intentions. These results agree with those from an earlier study (Ltifi, 2018). The author of that study examined the manner in which immersion influences the intention to use smartphones for e-commerce, corroborating the proposition that mobile applications are more attractive than desktop ones. Moreover, algorithms are thought to provide users with highly immersive experiences (Xu and Tayyab, 2021) and to encourage them to interact with equipment rather than with other individuals. Social interaction has been found to interrupt immersion and, by extension, to diminish its positive effect on satisfaction and loyalty (Sweetser and Wyeth, 2005). Our study has demonstrated that human–computer interactions can affect usage behavior.
5.2. Practical significance
This study can offer suggestions for the design of short video applications that can attract and keep the attention of consumers. To create more immersive experiences for users, designers should focus on novelty and entertainment value. Moreover, designers should create content that includes surprising, pleasurable, and original elements in order to generate more recommendations. At the same time, the features of short video applications should be updated constantly and in line with customer feedback so that browsing and content creation can become easier. As suggested in the literature, editing, and looping functionalities evoke emotions of vitality and positive feelings in users (Bernardi et al., 2018).
5.3. Limitations and future directions
This study has several limitations. First, it examined the typical characteristics of various short videos. Given the increasing variety of video applications, it is essential to subdivide short videos into types and content categories in order to identify the various social impacts of technological affordances. Second, our results indicated that irritating content affected immersion positively. Given that previous studies have arrived at the opposite finding, further research is warranted. Third, the data that we used was cross-sectional. Therefore, the results revealed only associations between the examined variables; an experimental design or the use of multiple measurement points over time would be necessary to infer causality confidently. Fourth, all data collected was self-reported by users. Self-reported measures of online media use remain crucial for communication research; however, previous studies have found low levels of measurement correspondence and tendencies of over-reporting for internet use (Scharkow, 2016; Araujo et al., 2017). To overcome possible biases, future investigators are advised to combine survey data with other sources, such as tracking data, event sampling, or qualitative data. Fifth, more than half of our participants were female. Although previous studies have shown that gender exerted no significant effects on immersion (Cuny et al., 2015) or social media use (Zhou and Zhang, 2019), we recognize that gender distribution may produce precise variability. Lastly, the data for this study was only collected from China. Considering the global development of short video applications and the differences among the dominant applications in different regions, we suggest that more researchers from different cultural backgrounds should explore the role of cultural factors.
6. Conclusion
We have developed a model to explore the influence of technological affordances on short video usage. A significant body of research has identified various technical aspects that may stimulate immersion. A novel finding from our study is that perception (including that of content and that of an application) and content value (entertainment and irritation) can influence immersion positively. Conversely, we found that ease of navigation, narrative structure, and the information value of short video applications did not influence immersion. Thus, the perceived situation affordance and affective affordance of short videos have been highlighted. Subsequently, they influence reuse and recommendation intentions. Thus, it is necessary to analyze the impact of different affordances and to modify the general definition of the concept of technological affordance that has emerged from the literature. These findings indicate that the appeal of a short video does not lie merely in the novelty of the format and its settings; what matters most is emotional engagement.
Data availability statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics statement
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the School of Journalism and Communication, Northwest University of Political Science and Law. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.
Author contributions
YY and YH developed the study concept, gathered data, performed data analysis, and described the results. LL revised the manuscript and provided critical comments. YH supervised the research project. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Funding
This work was supported by the Startup Fund for Young Faculty at SJTU (22×010500272).
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge and thank the subjects who participated in this study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
Agrawal, S., Simon, A., Bech, S., Bærentsen, K., and Forchhammer, S. (2020). Defining immersion: Literature review and implications for research on audiovisual experiences. J. Audio Eng. Soc. 68, 404–417. doi: 10.17743/jaes.2020.0039
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ahn, S. J., Bostick, J., Ogle, E., Nowak, K. L., McGillicuddy, K. T., and Bailenson, J. N. (2016). Experiencing nature: Embodying animals in immersive virtual environments increases inclusion of nature in self and involvement with nature. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 21, 399–419. doi: 10.1111/jcc4.12173
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ang, S. H., Lee, Y. H., and Leong, S. M. (2007). The ad creativity cube: Conceptualization and initial validation. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 35, 220–232. doi: 10.1007/s11747-007-0042-4
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Araujo, T., Wonneberger, A., Neijens, P., and de Vreese, C. (2017). How much time do you spend online? Understanding and improving the accuracy of self-reported measures of internet use. Commun. Methods Meas. 11, 173–190. doi: 10.1080/19312458.2017.1317337
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Aust, F., Diedenhofen, B., Ullrich, S., and Musch, J. (2013). Seriousness checks are useful to improve data validity in online research. Behav.Res. 45, 527–535. doi: 10.3758/s13428-012-0265-2
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Bazzanella, C. (2010). “Contextual constraints in CMC narrative” in Narrative revisited: Telling a story in the age of new media. ed. C. R. Hoffmann (Amsterdam: John Benjamins), 19–37.
Google Scholar
Bedi, S. S., Kaur, S., and Lal, A. K. (2017). Understanding web experience and perceived web enjoyment as antecedents of online purchase intention. Glob. Bus. Rev. 18, 465–477. doi: 10.1177/0972150916668614
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Bernardi, N. F., Bellemare-Pepin, A., and Peretz, I. (2018). Dancing to “groovy” music enhances the experience of flow. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1423, 415–426. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13644
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Brewer, W. F., and Lichtenstein, E. H. (1982). Stories are to entertain: A structural-affect theory of stories. J. Pragmat. 6, 473–486. doi: 10.1016/0378-2166(82)90021-2
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Brown, M. (2002). The use of banner advertisements with pull-down menus. J. Interact. Advert. 2, 57–65. doi: 10.1080/15252019.2002.10722062
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Brown, E., and Cairns, P. (2004). A grounded investigation of game immersion. Conference on human factors in computing systems—proceedings, Vienna, 1297–1300.
Google Scholar
Cairns, P., Cox, A., and Nordin, A. I. (2014). “Immersion in digital games: Review of gaming experience research” in Handbook of digital games. eds. M. C. Angelides and H. Agius (Hoboken, NJ: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Press), 337–361.
Google Scholar
Chun, C., Park, B., and Shi, C. (2020). Re-living suspense: Emotional and cognitive responses during repeated exposure to suspenseful film. Front. Psychol. 11:558234. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.558234
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Cummings, J. J., and Bailenson, J. N. (2016). How immersive is enough? A meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence. Media Psychol. 19, 272–309. doi: 10.1080/15213269.2015.1015740
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Cuny, C., Fornerino, M., and Helme-Guizon, A. (2015). Can music improve e-behavioral intentions by enhancing consumers’ immersion and experience? Inf. Manag. 52, 1025–1034. doi: 10.1016/j.im.2015.07.009
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Damala, A., Schuchert, T., Rodriguez, I., Moragues, J., Gilleade, K., and Stojanovic, N. (2013). Exploring the affective museum visiting experience: Adaptive augmented reality (A2R) and cultural heritage. Int. J. Herit. Digit. Era 2, 117–142. doi: 10.1260/2047-4970.2.1.117
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
de Graaf, A., and Hustinx, L. (2011). The effect of story structure on emotion, transportation, and persuasion. Inf. Des. J. 19, 142–154. doi: 10.1075/idj.19.2.05gra
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Dehghani, M., Niaki, M. K., Ramezani, I., and Sali, R. (2016). Full length article: Evaluating the influence of YouTube advertising for attraction of young customers. Comput. Hum. Behav. 59, 165–172. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.037
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ducoffe, R. H. (1995). How consumers assess the value of advertising. J. Curr. Issues Res. Advert. 17, 1–18. doi: 10.1080/10641734.1995.10505022
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ducoffe, R. H. (1996). Advertising value and advertising the web. J. Advert. Res. 5, 21–35.
Google Scholar
Dutta, N., and Bhat, A. (2017). Effect of perceived relational characteristics of online social network on e-WOM and purchase intention: Exploring mediating role of trust. Int. J. Web Based Communit. 13, 499–529. doi: 10.1504/IJWBC.2017.089352
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Elhai, J. D., Dvorak, R. D., Levine, J. C., and Hall, B. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology. J. Affect. Disord. 207, 251–259. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Evans, S. K., Pearce, K. E., Vitak, J., and Treem, J. W. (2017). Explicating affordances: A conceptual framework for understanding affordances in communication research. J. Comput. Mediat. 22, 35–52. doi: 10.1111/jcc4.12180
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Fang, J., Chen, L., Wen, C., and Prybutok, V. R. (2018). Co-viewing experience in video websites: The effect of social presence on e-loyalty. Int. J. Electron. Commer. 22, 446–476. doi: 10.1080/10864415.2018.1462929
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Feng, Y. (2018). Facilitator or inhibitor? The use of 360-degree videos for immersive brand storytelling. J. Interact. Advert. 18, 28–42. doi: 10.1080/15252019.2018.1446199
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Fornell, C., and Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J. Mark. Res. 18, 39–50. doi: 10.2307/3151312
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Fornerino, M., Helme-Guizon, A., and Gotteland, D. (2008). Movie consumption experience and immersion: Impact on satisfaction. Rech. Appl. Mark. 23, 93–110. doi: 10.1177/205157070802300306
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Fu, S., Yan, Q., and Feng, G. C. (2018). Who will attract you? Similarity effect among users on online purchase intention of movie tickets in the social shopping context. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 40, 88–102. doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.01.013
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
George, A., and Kumar, G. S. G. (2013). Antecedents of customer satisfaction in internet banking: Technology acceptance model (TAM) redefined. Glob. Bus. Rev. 14, 627–638. doi: 10.1177/0972150913501602
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Gerrig, R. J. (1993). Experiencing narrative worlds: On the psychological activities of reading. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1986). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Google Scholar
Gong, X., Liu, Z., Zheng, X., and Wu, T. (2018). Why are experienced users of WeChat likely to continue using the app? Asia PacJ. Mark. Logist. 30, 1013–1039. doi: 10.1108/APJML-10-2017-0246
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Green, M. C., Brock, T. C., and Kaufman, G. F. (2004). Understanding media enjoyment: The role of transportation into narrative worlds. Commun. Theory 14, 311–327. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00317.x
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Gu, C., Liu, S., and Chen, S. (2022). The effect of trait mindfulness on social media rumination: Upward social comparison as a moderated mediator. Front. Psychol. 13:931572. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931572
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Guo, K., Fan, A., Lehto, X., and Day, J. (2021). Immersive digital tourism: The role of multisensory cues in digital museum experiences. J. Hosp. Tour. Res. 6:109634802110303. doi: 10.1177/10963480211030319
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ha, Y. W., Park, M.-C., and Lee, E. (2014). A framework for mobile SNS advertising effectiveness: User perceptions and behaviour perspective. Behav. Inf. Technol. 33, 1333–1346. doi: 10.1080/0144929X.2014.928906
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hair, J. F. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Google Scholar
Hoeken, H., and Vliet, M. V. (2000). Suspense, curiosity, and surprise: How discourse structure influences the affective and cognitive processing of a story. Poetics 27, 277–286. doi: 10.1016/S0304-422X(99)00021-2
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hsu, C. L., Wu, C. C., and Chen, M. C. (2013). An empirical analysis of the antecedents of e-satisfaction and e-loyalty: Focusing on the role of flow and its antecedents. Inf. Syst. e-Bus. Manag. 11, 287–311. doi: 10.1007/s10257-012-0194-8
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hu, L., and Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Modeling 6, 1–55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Huang, Q., Hu, M., and Zhang, N. (2022). A techno-psychological approach to understanding problematic use of short-form video applications: The role of flow. Front. Psychol. 13:971589. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971589
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hwang, H., and Cho, J. (2018). Why Instagram? Intention to continue using Instagram among Korean college students. Soc. Behav. Pers. 46, 1305–1315. doi: 10.2224/sbp.6961
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hwang, J., and Kandampully, J. (2012). The role of emotional aspects in younger consumer-brand relationships. J. Prod. Brand. Manag. 21, 98–108. doi: 10.1108/10610421211215517
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hwang, H., and Nam, S. (2021). Social media use and subjective well-being among middle-aged consumers in Korea: Mediation model of social capital moderated by disability. J. Consum. Aff. 55, 1352–1372. doi: 10.1111/joca.12354
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Jennett, C., Cox, A. L., Cairns, P., Dhoparee, S., Epps, A., Tijs, T., et al. (2008). Measuring and defining the experience of immersion in games. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 66, 641–661. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhcs.2008.04.004
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Kelly, Y., Zilanawala, A., Booker, C., and Sacker, A. (2018). Social media use and adolescent mental health: Findings from the UK millennium cohort study. EClinicalMedicine 6, 59–68. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2018.12.005
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Kim, J., and Gambino, A. (2016). Do we trust the crowd or information system? Effects of personalization and bandwagon cues on users’ attitudes and behavioral intentions toward a restaurant recommendation website. Comput. Hum. Behav. 65, 369–379. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.038
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Kormi-Nouri, R., Nilsson, L. G., and Ohta, N. (2005). The novelty effect: Support for the novelty-encoding hypothesis. Scand. J. Psychol. 46, 133–143. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00443.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lang, A. (1990). Involuntary attention and physiological arousal evoked by structural features and emotional content in TV commercials. Commun. Res. 17, 275–299. doi: 10.1177/009365090017003001
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lee, S., and Lang, A. (2015). Redefining media content and structure in terms of available resources: Toward a dynamic human-centric theory of communication. Commun. Res. 42, 599–625. doi: 10.1177/0093650213488416
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Li, J. N., and Kim, S. K. (2020). A study about narrative structure and immersion theory on interactive game. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 13, 4915–4923.
Google Scholar
Lin, S.-W., and Lo, L. Y.-S. (2016). Evoking online consumer impulse buying through virtual layout schemes. Behav. Inf. Technol. 35, 38–56. doi: 10.1080/0144929X.2015.1056546
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lin, K. Y., and Lu, H. P. (2011). Why people use social networking sites: An empirical study integrating network externalities and motivation theory. Comput. Hum. Behav. 27, 1152–1161. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.009
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ling, R., and Lai, C. (2016). Microcoordination 2.0: Social coordination in the age of smartphones and messaging apps. J. Commun. 66, 834–856. doi: 10.1111/jcom.12251
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Liu, H., and Shiue, Y. (2014). Influence of Facebook game players’ behavior on flow and purchase intention. Soc. Behav. Pers. 42, 125–133. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2014.42.1.125
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Livingstone, L. P., Nelson, D. L., and Barr, S. H. (1997). Person-environment fit and creativity: An examination of supply-value and demand-ability versions of fit. J. Manag. 23, 119–146. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2063(97)90040-4
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ltifi, M. (2018). Determinants of the intention of smartphone usage by mobile internet users for m-services. Manag. Decis. 56, 2291–2307. doi: 10.1108/md-09-2017-0869
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lu, Y., Kim, Y., Dou, X., and Kumar, S. (2014). Promote physical activity among college students: Using media richness and interactivity in web design. Comput. Hum. Behav. 41, 40–50. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.08.012
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Luo, X. (2002). Uses and gratifications theory and E-consumer behaviors. J. Interact. Advert. 2, 34–41. doi: 10.1080/15252019.2002.10722060
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Luqman, A., Cao, X., Ali, A., Masood, A., and Yu, L. (2017). Empirical investigation of Facebook discontinues usage intentions based on SOR paradigm. Comput. Hum. Behav. 70, 544–555. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.020
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Markus, M. L., and Silver, M. S. (2008). A foundation for the study of IT effects: A new look at DeSanctis and Poole’s concepts of structural features and spirit. J. Assoc. Inf. Syst. 9, 609–632. doi: 10.17705/1jais.00176
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Mehrabian, A., and Russell, J. A. (1974). The basic emotional impact of environments. Percept. Mot. Skills 38, 283–301. doi: 10.2466/pms.1974.38.1.283
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Mei, B., and Brown, G. T. L. (2018). Conducting online surveys in China. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 36, 721–734. doi: 10.1177/0894439317729340
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Mendelson, A. (2001). Effects of novelty in news photographs on attention and memory. Media Psychol. 3, 119–157. doi: 10.1207/S1532785XMEP0302_02
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Meng, K. S., and Leung, L. (2021). Factors influencing TikTok engagement behaviors in China: An examination of gratifications sought, narcissism, and the big five personality traits. Telecommun. Policy 45:102172. doi: 10.1016/j.telpol.2021.102172
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Moon, J., Hossain, M. D., and Sanders, G. L. (2013). Player commitment to massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs): An integrated model. Int. J. Electron. Commer. 17, 7–38. doi: 10.2753/JEC1086-4415170401
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., and Muthén, B. O. (1998/2013) Mplus User’s Guide (7th) Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén.
Google Scholar
Myung, I. J. (2003). Tutorial on maximum likelihood estimation. J. Math. Psychol. 47, 90–100. doi: 10.1016/S0022-2496(02)00028-7
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Norman, D. (1990). The Design of Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books.
Google Scholar
Paez, D., Delfino, G., Vargas-Salfate, S., Liu, J. H., Gil De Zúñiga, H., Khan, S., et al. (2020). A longitudinal study of the effects of internet use on subjective well-being. Media Psychol. 23, 676–710. doi: 10.1080/15213269.2019.1624177
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., and Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav. Res. Methods 40, 879–891. doi: 10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Ardura, I., and Meseguer-Artola, A. (2019). Imagine, feel “there,” and flow! Immersive experiences on m-Facebook, and their affective and behavioral effects. Inf. Technol. People 32, 921–947. doi: 10.1108/ITP-10-2017-0358
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Ryan, K. M. (2018). Vertical video: Rupturing the aesthetic paradigm. Vis. Commun. 17, 245–261. doi: 10.1177/1470357217736660
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Sarkar, S., and Khare, A. (2018). Influence of expectation confirmation, network externalities, and flow on use of Mobile shopping apps. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. 35, 1449–1460. doi: 10.1080/10447318.2018.1540383
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Scharkow, M. (2016). The accuracy of self-reported internet use: A validation study using client log data. Commun. Methods Meas. 10, 13–27. doi: 10.1080/19312458.2015.1118446
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Shao, Z. (2018). Analysis of the characteristics, challenges and future development trends of Tik Tok. Contemp. Educ. Technol. 12, 81–87.
Google Scholar
Shao, J., and Lee, S. (2020). The effect of Chinese adolescents’ motivation to use Tiktok on satisfaction and continuous use intention. J. Convergence Cult. Technol. 6, 107–115. doi: 10.17703/JCCT.2020.6.2.107
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Shin, D. H. (2017). The role of affordance in the experience of virtual reality learning: Technological and affective affordances in virtual reality. Telemat. Inform. 34, 1826–1836. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2017.05.013
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Shrikant, M., Manjari, S., Nilay, Y., and Taras, V. (2020). Antecedents and outcomes of flow experience of MOOC users. J. Int. Educ. Bus. 13, 1–19. doi: 10.1108/JIEB-10-2018-0049
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Siegert, S., Holmgren Caicedo, M., and Martensson Hasnsson, M. (2020). Boundaryless twitter use: On the affordances of social media. Soc. Sci. 9, 201–219. doi: 10.3390/socsci9110201
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Slater, M., and Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence 6, 603–616. doi: 10.1162/pres.1997.6.6.603
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Sundar, S. S., and Limperos, A. M. (2013). Uses and grats 2.0: New gratifications for new media. J. Broadcast. Electron. Media 57, 504–525. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2013.845827
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Sweetser, P., and Wyeth, P. (2005). GameFlow: A model for evaluating player enjoyment in games. Comput. Entertain. 3, 1–24. doi: 10.1145/1077246.1077253
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Thon, J. N. (2008). “Immersion revisited: On the value of a contested concept” in Extending experience: Structure, analysis and design of computer game player experience. eds. O. T. Leino, H. E. Wirman, and F. Amyris (Rovaniemi: Lapland University Press), 29–43.
Google Scholar
Tuncer, I. (2021). The relationship between IT affordance, flow experience, trust, and social commerce intention: An exploration using the S-O-R paradigm. Technol. Soc. 65:101567. doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101567
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Turner-McGrievy, G., Kalyanaraman, S., and Campbell, M. K. (2013). Delivering health information via podcast or web: Media effects on psychosocial and physiological responses. Health Commun. 28, 101–109. doi: 10.1080/10410236.2011.651709
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
van Krieken, K. (2018). Multimedia storytelling in journalism: Exploring narrative techniques in snow fall. Information 9, 123–136. doi: 10.3390/info9050123
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Vaterlaus, J. M., and Winter, M. (2021). TikTok: An exploratory study of young adults’ uses and gratifications. Soc. Sci. J. 58, 1–10. doi: 10.1080/03623319.2021.1969882
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Wang, Y. (2020). Humor and camera view on mobile short-form video apps influence user experience and technology-adoption intent, an example of TikTok (DouYin). Comput. Hum. Behav. 110:106373. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2020.106373
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Waysdorf, A., and Reijnders, S. (2016). Immersion, authenticity and the theme park as social space: Experiencing the Wizarding World of Harry potter. Int. J. Cult. Stud. 21, 173–188. doi: 10.1177/1367877916674751
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Wegmann, E., and Brand, M. (2016). Internet-communication disorder: It’s a matter of social aspects, coping, and internet-use expectancies. Front. Psychol. 7:1747. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01747
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Weimann, G., and Masri, N. (2020). Research note: Spreading hate on TikTok. Stud. Confl. Terror. 43, 1–14. doi: 10.1080/1057610X.2020.1780027
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Wijnants, M., Rovelo, G., Quax, P., and Lamotte, W. (2017). WanderCouch: A smart TV approach towards experiencing music festivals live from the living room. Multimed. Tools Appl. 76, 5721–5753. doi: 10.1007/s11042-016-3888-y
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Xu, X., and Tayyab, S. M. (2021). How the intensity of the immersive experience impels the extent of social streaming app dependency? An empirical assessment with mediation and moderation effects. Telemat. Inform. 63:101661. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2021.101661
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Yang, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Yan, Z., and Xu, W. (2021). Can watching online videos be addictive? A qualitative exploration of online video watching among Chinese Young adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18:7247. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18147247
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Zhao, Y., Liu, J., Tang, J., and Zhu, Q. (2013). Conceptualizing perceived affordances in social media interaction design. ASLIB Proc. 65, 289–303. doi: 10.1108/00012531311330656
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Zhou, Z., Fang, Y., Vogel, D. R., Jin, X.-L., and Zhang, X. (2012). Attracted to or locked in? Predicting continuance intention in social virtual world services. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 29, 273–306. doi: 10.2753/MIS0742-1222290108
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Zhou, M., and Zhang, X. (2019). Online social networking and subjective well-being: Mediationg effects of envy and fatigue. Comput. Educ. 140:103598. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103598
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Zhu, J., and Cui, Y. P. (2018). Short-form video: New media forms in mobile visual scene – technology, social interaction, content and reflection. Press Circles 7, 69–75.
Google Scholar
